Journal Description
Polymers
Polymers
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Polymers and Plastics)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
- Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022)
Latest Articles
Optimizing Epoxy Molding Compound Processing: A Multi-Sensor Approach to Enhance Material Characterization and Process Reliability
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1540; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111540 (registering DOI) - 30 May 2024
Abstract
The in-line control of curing during the molding process significantly improves product quality and ensures the reliability of packaging materials with the required thermo-mechanical and adhesion properties. The choice of the morphological and thermo-mechanical properties of the molded material, and the accuracy of
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The in-line control of curing during the molding process significantly improves product quality and ensures the reliability of packaging materials with the required thermo-mechanical and adhesion properties. The choice of the morphological and thermo-mechanical properties of the molded material, and the accuracy of their determination through carefully selected thermo-analytical methods, play a crucial role in the qualitative prediction of trends in packaging product properties as process parameters are varied. This work aimed to verify the quality of the models and their validation using a highly filled molding resin with an identical chemical composition but 10 wt% difference in silica particles (SPs). Morphological and mechanical material properties were determined by dielectric analysis (DEA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), warpage analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The effects of temperature and injection speed on the morphological properties were analyzed through the design of experiments (DoE) and illustrated by response surface plots. A comprehensive approach to monitor the evolution of ionic viscosity (IV), residual enthalpy (dHrest), glass transition temperature (Tg), and storage modulus (E) as a function of the transfer-mold process parameters and post-mold-cure (PMC) conditions of the material was established. The reliability of Tg estimation was tested using two methods: warpage analysis and DMA. The noticeable deterioration in the quality of the analytical signal for highly filled materials at high cure rates is discussed. Controlling the temperature by increasing the injection speed leads to the formation of a polymer network with a lower Tg and an increased storage modulus, indicating a lower density and a more heterogeneous structure due to the high heating rate and shear heating effect.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Polymeric Composites: Processing, Characterization and Mechanical Behavior)
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Open AccessArticle
Synthesis and Characterization of Boronate Affinity Three-Dimensionally Ordered Macroporous Materials
by
Zhipeng Li, Luxia Zhang, Xiangyu Han, Qinchen An, Mengying Chen, Zichang Song, Linyi Dong, Xianhua Wang and Yang Yu
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1539; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111539 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Sample pretreatment is a key step for qualitative and quantitative analysis of trace substances in complex samples. Cis-dihydroxyl (cis-diol) group-containing substances exist widely in biological samples and can be selectively bound by boronate affinity adsorbents. Based on this, in this article, we proposed
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Sample pretreatment is a key step for qualitative and quantitative analysis of trace substances in complex samples. Cis-dihydroxyl (cis-diol) group-containing substances exist widely in biological samples and can be selectively bound by boronate affinity adsorbents. Based on this, in this article, we proposed a simple method for the preparation of novel spherical three-dimensionally ordered macropore (3DOM) materials based on a combination of the boronate affinity technique and colloidal crystal template method. The prepared 3DOM materials were characterized using Fourier transform–infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and thermo-gravimetric analysis, and results showed that they possessed the characteristics of a high specific surface area, high porosity, and more boronic acid recognition sites. The adsorption performance evaluation results showed that the maximum adsorption capacity of the boron affinity 3DOMs on ovalbumin (OVA) could reach to 438.79 mg/g. Kinetic and isothermal adsorption experiments indicated that the boronate affinity 3DOM material exhibited a high affinity and selectivity towards OVA and adenosine. Sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of the proteins in egg whites was conducted and proved that the glycoprotein in the egg whites could be separated and enriched with a good performance. Therefore, a novel boronate affinity 3DOM material a with highly ordered and interconnected pore structure was prepared and could be applied in the separation and enrichment of molecules with cis-diol groups from complex samples with a good selectivity, efficiency, and high throughput.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Chemistry)
Open AccessArticle
Using Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Technology for Determination of Fish Serum Glucose Levels
by
Boxuan Yao, Long Gu, Li Huang, Ruichun Li, Ze Fan, Zhongxiang Chen, Dongli Qin and Lei Gao
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1538; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111538 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
In this study, a highly efficient magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposite material was prepared using multi-walled carbon nanotubes as carriers. The characterization of the obtained nanocomposite material was conducted using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, a vibrating sample magnetometer, a thermogravimetric analyzer, a scanning
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In this study, a highly efficient magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposite material was prepared using multi-walled carbon nanotubes as carriers. The characterization of the obtained nanocomposite material was conducted using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, a vibrating sample magnetometer, a thermogravimetric analyzer, a scanning electron microscope, and a transmission electron microscope. The adsorption properties of the nanocomposite material were evaluated through adsorption experiments, including static adsorption, dynamic adsorption, and selective recognition studies. The prepared nanocomposite material, serving as a selective adsorbent, was applied in magnetic solid-phase extraction. Subsequently, the derivatized samples were analyzed for glucose in fish serum using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Under optimal conditions, the detection limit was 0.30 ng/mL, the quantitation limit was 0.99 ng/mL, satisfactory spiked recovery rates were obtained, and the relative standard deviation was less than 1.1%. Using 2-deoxy-D-ribose as the template molecule and a structural analog of glucose allowed us to eliminate the potential template leakage in qualitative and quantitative analyses, effectively avoiding the issues of false positives and potential quantitative errors, compared to traditional methods. A method for detecting glucose levels in fish serum based on molecularly imprinted polymer technology has been successfully developed to determine the stress and health levels of fish.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers II)
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Open AccessArticle
Influence of Cutting Regime Parameters on Determining the Main Cutting Resistance during Polypropylene Machining
by
Slavica Prvulović, Predrag Mošorinski, Ljubiša Josimović, Jasna Tolmač, Luka Djordjević, Mića Djurdjev, Mihalj Bakator, Branislava Radišić and Dejan Bajić
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1537; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111537 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
This study examines the impact of cutting regimes on determining cutting resistance in the processing of polypropylene (PP) using the CNC lathe EMCO F5. The rationale for this research stems from polypropylene’s rarity among thermoplastics in possessing structural stability, allowing for its comparison
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This study examines the impact of cutting regimes on determining cutting resistance in the processing of polypropylene (PP) using the CNC lathe EMCO F5. The rationale for this research stems from polypropylene’s rarity among thermoplastics in possessing structural stability, allowing for its comparison to metals and practical application in products replacing metal parts. Leveraging its favorable mechanical properties, polypropylene finds utility in producing parts subject to dynamic loads, boasting high resistance to impact loads—particularly undesirable in machining. An advantageous characteristic of polypropylene is its affordability, rendering it an economical choice across numerous applications. Despite these merits, polypropylene’s exploration in cutting processing remains limited, underscoring the novelty of this research endeavor. The main method for determining cutting resistance involves measuring electric current strength during processing. This direct measurement, facilitated by input cutting regime parameters, is recorded by the PLC controller, with the current value extracted from the machine tool’s ammeter. The experimental approach entails varying cutting regime parameters—cutting speed (v), feed rate (s), and depth of cut (a)—across minimum and maximum values, recognized as pivotal factors influencing cutting force development and the attainment of the desired machined surface quality.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
Open AccessArticle
Valorization of Tomato Agricultural Waste for 3D-Printed Polymer Composites Based on Poly(lactic acid)
by
Sotirios Pemas, Dimitrios Gkiliopoulos, Christina Samiotaki, Dimitrios N. Bikiaris, Zoi Terzopoulou and Eleftheria Maria Pechlivani
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1536; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111536 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Agricultural waste is a renewable source of lignocellulosic components, which can be processed in a variety of ways to yield added-value materials for various applications, e.g., polymer composites. However, most lignocellulosic biomass is incinerated for energy. Typically, agricultural waste is left to decompose
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Agricultural waste is a renewable source of lignocellulosic components, which can be processed in a variety of ways to yield added-value materials for various applications, e.g., polymer composites. However, most lignocellulosic biomass is incinerated for energy. Typically, agricultural waste is left to decompose in the fields, causing problems such as greenhouse gas release, attracting insects and rodents, and impacting soil fertility. This study aims to valorise nonedible tomato waste with no commercial value in Additive Manufacturing (AM) to create sustainable, cost-effective and added-value PLA composites. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) filaments with 5 and 10 wt.% tomato stem powder (TSP) were developed, and 3D-printed specimens were tested. Mechanical testing showed consistent tensile properties with 5% TSP addition, while flexural strength decreased, possibly due to void formation. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) indicated changes in storage modulus and damping factor with TSP addition. Notably, the composites exhibited antioxidant activity, increasing with higher TSP content. These findings underscore the potential of agricultural waste utilization in FFF, offering insights into greener waste management practices and addressing challenges in mechanical performance and material compatibility. This research highlights the viability of integrating agricultural waste into filament-based AM, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices and promoting circular economy initiatives.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers, Additives and Reinforcements from Upgraded Wastes from the Food Industry and Agroforestry)
Open AccessArticle
Surface Evolution of Polymer Films Grown by Vapor Deposition: Growth of Local and Global Slopes of Interfaces
by
Jungyu Shin and I. J. Lee
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1535; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111535 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
The kinetic roughening of polymer films grown by vapor deposition polymerization was analyzed using the widely accepted classification framework of “generic scaling ansatz” given for the structure factor. Over the past two decades, this method has played a pivotal role in classifying diverse
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The kinetic roughening of polymer films grown by vapor deposition polymerization was analyzed using the widely accepted classification framework of “generic scaling ansatz” given for the structure factor. Over the past two decades, this method has played a pivotal role in classifying diverse forms of dynamic scaling and understanding the mechanisms driving interface roughening. The roughness exponents of the polymer films were consistently determined as α=1.25±0.09, αloc=0.73±0.02, and αs=0.99±0.06. However, the inability to unambiguously assign these roughness exponent values to a specific scaling subclass prompts the proposal of a practical alternative. This report illustrates how all potential dynamic scaling can be consistently identified and classified based on the relationship between two temporal scaling exponents measured in real space: the average local slope and the global slope of the interface. The intrinsic anomalous roughening class is conclusively assigned to polymer film growth characterized by anomalous “native (background slope-removed) local height fluctuations”. Moreover, the new analysis reveals that interfaces exhibiting anomalous scaling, previously classified as intrinsic anomalous roughening, could potentially belong to the super-rough class, particularly when the spectral roughness exponent αs is equal to 1.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Polymer-Based Membranes)
Open AccessArticle
Biological Response of the Peri-Implant Mucosa to Different Definitive Implant Rehabilitation Materials
by
María Baus-Domínguez, Elena Oliva-Ferrusola, Serafín Maza-Solano, Gonzalo Ruiz-de-León, María-Ángeles Serrera-Figallo, José-Luis Gutiérrez-Perez, Daniel Torres-Lagares and Laura Macías-García
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111534 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Background: Sealing the peri-implant tissue is a determining factor for long-term implant survival. In the transmucosal region, the cervical fraction of the prosthetic crown is in contact with these tissues, so mucointegration will also be influenced by the biomaterial used for the prosthetic
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Background: Sealing the peri-implant tissue is a determining factor for long-term implant survival. In the transmucosal region, the cervical fraction of the prosthetic crown is in contact with these tissues, so mucointegration will also be influenced by the biomaterial used for the prosthetic restoration. This study aims to compare the tissue response generated by definitive restorative materials and polymeric materials from a histological point of view. Methods: This study performed an observational prospective cohort study in which biopsies of the peri-implant mucosa were taken after placement of implant-supported prosthetic restorations made of different materials (zirconium oxide, lithium disilicate, and PMMA). Results: A statistically significant difference was observed in the increase in the thickness of the non-keratinized epithelium when comparing the definitive materials (zirconium oxide/lithium disilicate) vs. the provisional material (PMMA) and in the number of collagen fibers when comparing zirconium oxide and lithium disilicate. Conclusions: This study found that zirconia is the material that presents the most adequate biological response of peri-implant tissues. It shows a lower intensity of inflammatory cellular content, a total normality in the number of collagen fibers (the arrangement of the fibers is normal in 90% of the cases), and vascular proliferation of connective tissue in 83% of the cases. These parameters make it a material with a predictable response. Similarly, only the following slight statistically significant differences between the definitive and provisional materials are observed, indicating that the biological response generated by the provisional material (PMMA) is not very different from that obtained with the placement of the definitive restoration.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymeric Dental Materials)
Open AccessReview
Biodegradable Conducting Polymer-Based Composites for Biomedical Applications—A Review
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Tabrej Khan, Gayathri Vadivel, Balan Ramasamy, Gowtham Murugesan and Tamer A. Sebaey
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1533; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111533 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
In recent years, researchers have increasingly directed their focus toward the biomedical field, driven by the goal of engineering polymer systems that possess a unique combination of both electrical conductivity and biodegradability. This convergence of properties holds significant promise, as it addresses a
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In recent years, researchers have increasingly directed their focus toward the biomedical field, driven by the goal of engineering polymer systems that possess a unique combination of both electrical conductivity and biodegradability. This convergence of properties holds significant promise, as it addresses a fundamental requirement for biomedical applications: compatibility with biological environments. These polymer systems are viewed as auspicious biomaterials, precisely because they meet this critical criterion. Beyond their biodegradability, these materials offer a range of advantageous characteristics. Their exceptional processability enables facile fabrication into various forms, and their chemical stability ensures reliability in diverse physiological conditions. Moreover, their low production costs make them economically viable options for large-scale applications. Notably, their intrinsic electrical conductivity further distinguishes them, opening up possibilities for applications that demand such functionality. As the focus of this review, a survey into the use of biodegradable conducting polymers in tissue engineering, biomedical implants, and antibacterial applications is conducted.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Polymeric Materials: Polysaccharides and Carbohydrate Polymers)
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Open AccessReview
Perspectives on Using Alder, Larch, and Birch Wood Species to Maintain the Increasing Particleboard Production Flow
by
Roman Reh, Lubos Kristak, Pavel Kral, Tomas Pipiska and Miroslav Jopek
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1532; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111532 (registering DOI) - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Particleboard, engineered wood products as part of a large family of wood composite materials, developed in use mainly in the 1950s and 1960s to utilize inferior wood and wood waste when good-quality wood was in short supply; the annual production capacity worldwide is
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Particleboard, engineered wood products as part of a large family of wood composite materials, developed in use mainly in the 1950s and 1960s to utilize inferior wood and wood waste when good-quality wood was in short supply; the annual production capacity worldwide is over 100 million m3. It is also necessary to have a lot of wood raw material for its production, although raw material resources are limited on our planet. In addition to the main wood species, it is therefore possible to think about the wider use of alternative, lesser-known European species of alder, larch, and birch in particleboard production. These three wood species represent an eco-friendly and sustainable wood alternative to the conventional wood raw materials used. This review confirms the diversity of the use of these three species in different fields and proves their suitability in relation to particleboard production. Fundamental research is ongoing in certain universities to determine the proportional shares of use of these tree species in particleboard (in a certain weight proportion in their core layers) for the purpose of formulating the correct technology shares and rules for their application in the wood-based panel industry.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Based Composites)
Open AccessArticle
Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Mediated by Punica granatum Peel Waste: An Effective Additive for Natural Rubber Latex Nanofibers Enhancement
by
Talia S. Echegaray-Ugarte, Andrea L. Cespedes-Loayza, Jacqueline L. Cruz-Loayza, Luis A. Huayapa-Yucra, Isemar Cruz, Júlio Cesar de Carvalho and Luis Daniel Goyzueta-Mamani
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1531; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111531 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Pomegranate waste poses an environmental challenge in Arequipa. Simultaneously, interest in sustainable materials like natural rubber latex (NRL) is growing, with Peruvian communities offering a promising source. This study explores the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using pomegranate peel extract and their
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Pomegranate waste poses an environmental challenge in Arequipa. Simultaneously, interest in sustainable materials like natural rubber latex (NRL) is growing, with Peruvian communities offering a promising source. This study explores the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using pomegranate peel extract and their incorporation into NRL nanofibers for enhanced functionalities. An eco-friendly process utilized silver nitrate and pomegranate peel extract as a reducing and capping agent to synthesize AgNPs. The resulting AgNPs and NRL/AgNPs nanofibers were characterized using imaging and spectroscopic techniques such as UV-vis, TGA, FTIR, XRD, Raman, SEM, and DLS. Green-synthesized AgNPs were spherical and crystalline, with an average diameter of 59 nm. They showed activity against K. pneumoniae, E. coli, B. cereus, and S. aureus (IC50: 51.32, 4.87, 27.72, and 69.72 µg/mL, respectively). NRL and NRL/AgNPs nanofibers (300–373 nm diameter) were successfully fabricated. The composite nanofibers exhibited antibacterial activity against K. pneumoniae and B. cereus. This study presents a sustainable approach by utilizing pomegranate waste for AgNP synthesis and NRL sourced from Peruvian communities. Integrating AgNPs into NRL nanofibers produced composites with antimicrobial properties. This work has potential applications in smart textiles, biomedical textiles, and filtration materials where sustainability and antimicrobial functionality are crucial.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Agarose-Based Hydrogel Film with Embedded Oriented Photonic Nanochains for Sensing pH
by
Dunyi Xiao, Huiru Ma, Wei Luo and Jianguo Guan
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1530; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111530 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Responsive photonic crystal hydrogel sensors are renowned for their colorimetric sensing ability and can be utilized in many fields such as medical diagnosis, environmental detection, food safety, and industrial production. Previously, our group invented responsive photonic nanochains (RPNCs), which improve the response speed
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Responsive photonic crystal hydrogel sensors are renowned for their colorimetric sensing ability and can be utilized in many fields such as medical diagnosis, environmental detection, food safety, and industrial production. Previously, our group invented responsive photonic nanochains (RPNCs), which improve the response speed of photonic crystal hydrogel sensors by at least 2 to 3 orders of magnitude. However, RPNCs are dispersed in a liquid medium, which needs a magnetic field to orient them for the generation of structural colors. In addition, during repeated use, the process of cleaning and redispersing can cause entanglement, breakage, and a loss of RPNCs, resulting in poor stability. Moreover, when mixing with the samples in liquid, the RPNCs may lead to the contamination of the samples being tested. In this paper, we incorporate one-dimensional oriented RPNCs with agarose gel film to prepare heterogeneous hydrogel films. Thanks to the non-responsive and porous nature of the agarose gel, the protons diffuse freely in the gel, which facilitates the fast response of the RPNCs. Furthermore, the “frozen” RPNCs in agarose gel not only enable the display of structural colors without the need for a magnet but also improve the cycling stability and long-term durability of the sensor, and will not contaminate the samples. This work paves the way for the application of photonic crystal sensors.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Stimuli-Responsive Polymer Composites)
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Open AccessArticle
Industrial Two-Phase Olive Pomace Slurry-Derived Hydrochar Fuel for Energy Applications
by
Adnan Asad Karim, Mª Lourdes Martínez-Cartas and Manuel Cuevas-Aranda
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1529; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111529 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
The present study aims to resolve the existing research gaps on olive pomace (OP) hydrochars application as a fuel by evaluating its molecular structures (FTIR and solid NMR analysis), identifying influential characteristics (Pearson correlation analysis), process optimization (response surface methodology), slagging–fouling risks (empirical
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The present study aims to resolve the existing research gaps on olive pomace (OP) hydrochars application as a fuel by evaluating its molecular structures (FTIR and solid NMR analysis), identifying influential characteristics (Pearson correlation analysis), process optimization (response surface methodology), slagging–fouling risks (empirical indices), and combustion performance (TG-DSC analysis). The response surfaces plot for hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of OP slurry performed in a pressure reactor under varied temperatures (180–250 °C) and residence times (2–30 min) revealed 250 °C for 30 min to be optimal conditions for producing hydrochar fuel with a higher heating value (32.20 MJ·Kg−1) and energy densification ratio (1.40). However, in terms of process efficiency and cost-effectiveness, the optimal HTC conditions for producing the hydrochar with the highest energy yield of 87.9% were 202.7 °C and 2.0 min. The molecular structure of hydrochar was mainly comprised of aromatic rings with methyl groups, alpha-C atoms of esters, and ether bond linkages of lignin fractions. The slagging and fouling risks of hydrochars were comparatively lower than those of raw OP, as indicated by low slagging and fouling indices. The Pearson correlation analysis emphasized that the enrichment of acid-insoluble lignin and extractive contents, carbon densification, and reduced ash content were the main pivotal factors for hydrochar to exhibit better biofuel characteristics for energy applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass and Waste Polymers: Innovations and Opportunities)
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Open AccessArticle
Enhanced Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Cardanol Epoxy/Clay-Based Nanocomposite through Girard’s Reagent
by
Ji Xu, Lingxiao Jia, Qixin Lan and Daheng Wu
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1528; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111528 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
The green and environmentally friendly cardanol epoxy resin has a bright application prospect, but its insufficient thermal/mechanical properties seriously hinder its application. Adding nanoclay to polymer matrix is an effective method to enhance the thermal/mechanical properties of material, but the dispersion and compatibility
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The green and environmentally friendly cardanol epoxy resin has a bright application prospect, but its insufficient thermal/mechanical properties seriously hinder its application. Adding nanoclay to polymer matrix is an effective method to enhance the thermal/mechanical properties of material, but the dispersion and compatibility of nanoclay in epoxy resin remain to be solved. In this work, active Girard’s reagent clay (PG-clay) and non-active Girard’s reagent clay (NG-clay) were prepared by using acethydrazide trimethylammonium chloride (Girard’s reagent) as the modifier, and cardanol epoxy resin/G-clay nanocomposites were synthesized by the “clay slurry composite method”. The results showed that both PG-clay and NG-clay were dispersed in the epoxy matrix in the form of random exfoliation/intercalation, which effectively improved the thermal/mechanical properties of the composites. Tg of the cardanol epoxy resin has raised from 19.8 °C to 38.1 °C (4 wt.% PG-clay). When the mass fraction of clay is 4%, the tensile strength of the non-reactive NG-clay increases by 128%, and the elongation at break also increases by 101%. Simultaneously, the active PG-clay can participate in the curing reaction of epoxy resin due to the amino group, forming a chemical bond between the clay layer and the resin matrix and establishing a strong interfacial force. The tensile strength of the composite is increased by 970%, and the elongation at break is also increased by 428%. This research demonstrates that the cardanol epoxy resin/G-clay nanocomposite stands as a highly promising candidate for bio-based epoxy resin materials.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Progress in Polymer Self-Assembly)
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Open AccessArticle
The Development of a Bacterial Nanocellulose/Cationic Starch Hydrogel for the Production of Sustainable 3D-Printed Packaging Foils
by
Špela Dermol, Bojan Borin, Diana Gregor-Svetec, Lidija Slemenik Perše and Gregor Lavrič
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1527; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111527 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
Polymers have become an important part of everyday life, but most of the polymers currently used are petroleum-based. This poses an environmental problem, especially with respect to products that are quickly discarded. For this reason, current packaging development focuses on sustainable materials as
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Polymers have become an important part of everyday life, but most of the polymers currently used are petroleum-based. This poses an environmental problem, especially with respect to products that are quickly discarded. For this reason, current packaging development focuses on sustainable materials as an alternative to synthetic ones. Nanocellulose, a relatively new material derived from cellulose, has unique properties such as high strength, low density, high surface area, and good barrier properties, making it popular in various applications. Additionally, 3D printing technologies have become an important part of industrial and commercial processes, enabling the realization of innovative ideas and functionalities. The main aim of this research was to develop a hydrogel of bacterial nanocellulose with suitable rheological properties for the 3D printing of polymer foils. Three variations of bacterial nanocellulose hydrogel differing in ratios of bacterial nanocellulose to cationic starch were produced. The rheological studies confirmed the suitability of the hydrogels for 3D printing. Foils were successfully 3D-printed using a modified 3D printer. The physical-mechanical, surface, and optical properties of the foils were determined. All foils were homogeneous with adequate mechanical properties. The 3D-printed foils with the highest amount of cationic starch were the most homogeneous and transparent and, despite their rigidity, very strong. All foils were semi-transparent, had a non-glossy surface, and retained poor water wettability.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellulose and Cellulose Micro/Nanomaterials: Recent Research and Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Thermo-Mechanical Behavior and Strain Rate Sensitivity of 3D-Printed Polylactic Acid (PLA) below Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)
by
Vukašin Slavković, Blaž Hanželič, Vasja Plesec, Strahinja Milenković and Gregor Harih
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1526; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111526 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
This study investigated the thermomechanical behavior of 4D-printed polylactic acid (PLA), focusing on its response to varying temperatures and strain rates in a wide range below the glass transition temperature (Tg). The material was characterized using tension, compression, and dynamic mechanical
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This study investigated the thermomechanical behavior of 4D-printed polylactic acid (PLA), focusing on its response to varying temperatures and strain rates in a wide range below the glass transition temperature (Tg). The material was characterized using tension, compression, and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA), confirming PLA’s strong dependency on strain rate and temperature. The glass transition temperature of 4D-printed PLA was determined to be 65 °C using a thermal analysis (DMTA). The elastic modulus changed from 1045.7 MPa in the glassy phase to 1.2 MPa in the rubber phase, showing the great shape memory potential of 4D-printed PLA. The filament tension tests revealed that the material’s yield stress strongly depended on the strain rate at room temperature, with values ranging from 56 MPa to 43 MPA as the strain rate decreased. Using a commercial FDM Ultimaker printer, cylindrical compression samples were 3D-printed and then characterized under thermo-mechanical conditions. Thermo-mechanical compression tests were conducted at strain rates ranging from 0.0001 s−1 to 0.1 s−1 and at temperatures below the glass transition temperature (Tg) at 25, 37, and 50 °C. The conducted experimental tests showed that the material had distinct yield stress, strain softening, and strain hardening at very large deformations. Clear strain rate dependence was observed, particularly at quasi-static rates, with the temperature and strain rate significantly influencing PLA’s mechanical properties, including yield stress. Yield stress values varied from 110 MPa at room temperature with a strain rate of 0.1 s−1 to 42 MPa at 50 °C with a strain rate of 0.0001 s−1. This study also included thermo-mechanical adiabatic tests, which revealed that higher strain rates of 0.01 s−1 and 0.1 s−1 led to self-heating due to non-dissipated generated heat. This internal heating caused additional softening at higher strain rates and lower stress values. Thermal imaging revealed temperature increases of 15 °C and 18 °C for strain rates of 0.01 s−1 and 0.1 s−1, respectively.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing)
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Open AccessReview
Current Concerns about Microplastics and Nanoplastics: A Brief Overview
by
Marco Morreale and Francesco Paolo La Mantia
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1525; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111525 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
The widespread and increasing use of plastic-based goods in the present-day world has been raising many concerns about the formation of microplastics, their release, their impacts on the environment and, ultimately, on living organisms. These concerns are even greater regarding nanoplastics, i.e., nanosized
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The widespread and increasing use of plastic-based goods in the present-day world has been raising many concerns about the formation of microplastics, their release, their impacts on the environment and, ultimately, on living organisms. These concerns are even greater regarding nanoplastics, i.e., nanosized microplastics, which may have even greater impacts. In this brief review, although without any claim or intention to exhaustively cover all the aspects of such a complex and many-sided issue, the very topical problem of the formation of microplastics, and the even more worrisome nanoplastics, from polymer-based products was considered. The approach is focused on a terse, straightforward, and easily accessible analysis oriented to the main technological engineering aspects regarding the sources of microplastics and nanoplastics released into the environment, their nature, some of the consequences arising from the release, the different polymers involved, their technological form (i.e., products or processes, with particular attention towards unintentional release), the formation mechanisms, and some possible mitigation pathways.
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(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Polymer Science)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental and Numerical Study of Computer Vision-Based Real-Time Monitoring of Polymeric Particle Mixing Process in Rotary Drum
by
Junghyun Byun and Kwon Joong Son
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1524; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111524 - 29 May 2024
Abstract
In the drum mixing of particulate polymers, segregation may occur. By measuring the mixing status in real time, it is possible to implement corrective measures to prevent separation and improve the efficiency of the process. This study aims to develop and validate a
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In the drum mixing of particulate polymers, segregation may occur. By measuring the mixing status in real time, it is possible to implement corrective measures to prevent separation and improve the efficiency of the process. This study aims to develop and validate a real-time vision system designed to monitor the mixing process of polymeric particles in a rotary drum mixer, employing a novel centroid-based model for determining the mixing index. The proposed centroid-based model is capable of addressing the radial particle segregation issue without the need for extra image-processing procedures like image subdivision or pixel randomization. This innovative approach greatly improves computational efficiency by processing over 68 image frames per second. The new processing method is 2.8 times faster than the gray-level co-occurrence matrix method and 21.6 times faster than the Lacey index approach. This significantly improves real-time monitoring capabilities and enables real-time image processing using only affordable single-board computers and webcams. The proposed vision-based system for monitoring rotary drum mixing has undergone validation via cross-validation using discrete element method simulations, ensuring its accuracy and reliability.
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(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)
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Open AccessArticle
Smartphone-Based Rapid Quantitative Detection Platform with Imprinted Polymer for Pb (II) Detection in Real Samples
by
Flor de Liss Meza López, Christian Jacinto Hernández, Jaime Vega-Chacón, Juan C. Tuesta, Gino Picasso, Sabir Khan, María D. P. T. Sotomayor and Rosario López
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1523; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111523 - 28 May 2024
Abstract
This paper reports the successful development and application of an efficient method for quantifying Pb2+ in aqueous samples using a smartphone-based colorimetric device with an imprinted polymer (IIP). The IIP was synthesized by modifying the previous study; using rhodizonate, 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid
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This paper reports the successful development and application of an efficient method for quantifying Pb2+ in aqueous samples using a smartphone-based colorimetric device with an imprinted polymer (IIP). The IIP was synthesized by modifying the previous study; using rhodizonate, 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS), N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), and potassium persulfate (KPS). The polymers were then characterized. An absorption study was performed to determine the optimal conditions for the smartphone-based colorimetric device processing. The device consists of a black box (10 × 10 × 10 cm), which was designed to ensure repeatability of the image acquisition. The methodology involved the use of a smartphone camera to capture images of IIP previously exposed at Pb2+ solutions with various concentrations, and color channel values were calculated (RGB, YMK HSVI). PLS multivariate regression was performed, and the optimum working range (0–10 mg L−1) was determined using seven principal components with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.215 mg L−1 and R2 = 0.998. The applicability of a colorimetric sensor in real samples showed a coefficient of variation (% RSD) of less than 9%, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was applied as the reference method. These results confirmed that the quantitation smartphone-based colorimetric sensor is a suitable analytical tool for reliable on-site Pb2+ monitoring.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecularly Imprinted Polymers: Latest Advances and Applications)
Open AccessArticle
Thermal Decomposition Mechanism of P(DAC-AM) with Serial Cationicity and Intrinsic Viscosity
by
Tingting Chen, Yongji Wang and Yuejun Zhang
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1522; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111522 - 28 May 2024
Abstract
The thermal decomposition of the thermodynamic, kinetic and mechanisms of copolymer P(DAC-AM) samples with serial cationicity and intrinsic viscosity ([η]), and the control samples of homopolymer PAM and PDAC, were studied and analyzed using TG, DSC, FTIR. The results of the
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The thermal decomposition of the thermodynamic, kinetic and mechanisms of copolymer P(DAC-AM) samples with serial cationicity and intrinsic viscosity ([η]), and the control samples of homopolymer PAM and PDAC, were studied and analyzed using TG, DSC, FTIR. The results of the thermal decomposition thermodynamics confirmed that the thermal decomposition processes of the serial P(DAC-AM) samples and the two control samples could be divided into two stages. It was found that the processes of the copolymer P(DAC-AM) samples were not a simple superposition of those of homopolymers, whose monomers had composed the unit structures of the copolymer, but there were interactions between the two suspension groups. The results of thermal decomposition kinetics showed that the apparent activation energy (E) of the thermal decomposition process of all polymer samples had different varying trends in the terms of weight-loss rate (α). The reaction order (n) of the thermal decomposition of P(DAC-AM) in Stage I and II was close to 1, but in the former and the latter it tended to be 2 and 0.5, respectively. Finally, the thermal decomposition mechanism of copolymer P(DAC-AM) samples was discussed. The above research could not only fill in the knowledge vacancy of the thermal decomposition of the thermodynamic, kinetic and mechanisms of P(DAC-AM), but could also lay a foundation for the study of thermal decomposition mechanisms of the other types of polymers, including cationic polymers.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Properties Analysis of Polymers)
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Open AccessReview
Characterization of Polyallylamine/Polystyrene Sulfonate Polyelectrolyte Microcapsules Formed on Solid Cores: Morphology
by
Aleksandr L. Kim, Egor V. Musin, Yuri S. Chebykin and Sergey A. Tikhonenko
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1521; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111521 - 28 May 2024
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte microcapsules (PMC) based on polyallylamine and polystyrene sulfonate are utilized in various fields of human activity, including medicine, textiles, and the food industry, among others. However, characteristics such as microcapsule size, shell thickness, and pore size are not sufficiently studied and systematized,
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Polyelectrolyte microcapsules (PMC) based on polyallylamine and polystyrene sulfonate are utilized in various fields of human activity, including medicine, textiles, and the food industry, among others. However, characteristics such as microcapsule size, shell thickness, and pore size are not sufficiently studied and systematized, even though they determine the possibility of using microcapsules in applied tasks. The aim of this review is to identify general patterns and gaps in the study of the morphology of polyelectrolyte microcapsules obtained by the alternate adsorption of polystyrene sulfonate and polyallylamine on different solid cores. First and foremost, it was found that the morphological change in polyelectrolyte microcapsules formed on different cores exhibits a significant difference in response to varying stimuli. Factors such as ionic strength, the acidity of the medium, and temperature have different effects on the size of the microcapsules, the thickness of their shells, and the number and size of their pores. At present, the morphology of the microcapsules formed on the melamine formaldehyde core has been most studied, while the morphology of microcapsules formed on other types of cores is scarcely studied. In addition, modern methods of nanoscale system analysis will allow for an objective assessment of PMC characteristics and provide a fresh perspective on the subject of research.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polyelectrolytes and Polyelectrolyte Complexes)
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